Nelson Glueck

Nelson Glueck was born on June 4, 1900 in Cincinnati, Ohio. During the 70 years of his life he was a well-known Rabbi and archaeologist until his death on February 12, 1971. At the age of 23, he was ordained as a Reform rabbi by the Hebrew Union College and four years later was awarded his Ph.D. at Jena, Germany, for his dissertation on the biblical concept of hesed (the Hebrew term for goodness or divine kindness). Until World War II Gluek worked with William Foxwell Albright at the American School of Oriental Research in Jerusalem (ASOR,) and Albright's excavation of Tell Beit Mirsim. Glueck himself served as director of ASOR, as well as having a faculty position at HUC in Jerusalem. After graduating from Cincinnati Public Schools, he atteneded the University of Cincinnati where he received his bachelor's degree. Glueck went home in 1931 and married Helen Ransohof Iglauer, a medical student at the University of Cincinnati who was a professor of medicine. Their only son Dr. Charles Jonathan Glueck was a noted physician as well. Glueck continued his studies in Germany for four years and received his doctorate degree from the University of Jena in 1926. For the next two years (1927-28) he would continue his studies at the School in Jerusalem. While studying in Palestine he became interested in archaeology, returning twice (1930 and 1932) to take part in an excavation of Tell Beit Mirsim, probably Biblical Debir (Kirjath-Sepher). â€Å"During World War II Glueck served in the Office of Strategic Services (the precursor of the CIA), examining possible escape routes for the allies through the desert, in anticipation of the German army under General Rommel, reaching Palestine. Fortunately, Rommel's advance was halted by the Allies in Egypt.† He created the HUC Biblical and Archaeological School in Jerusalem in 1963, the same year that he appeared on the cover of Time magazine. The institute was renamed in 1972 to the Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology. Glueck after the war became president of the Hebrew Union College, and then president of the combined HUC-Jewish Institute of Religion, a position he held until his death in 1971. This is the same colledge that ordained him as a Rabbi. As president Glueck oversaw the merger of HUC with the Jewish Institute of Religion, expanding the institution based out of Cincinnati to now include schools in New York, Los Angeles, and Jerusalem. He played a vital role in the creation of the Schools of Jewish Communal Service and was the founder of the School of Biblical and Archaeological Studies in Jerusalem, in honor of him they now bears his name.Excavation Sites and Methods of ExcavationThe Bible was his map for excavations and, in turn, the excavations shed a bit of light on the Bible. Sheldon H. Blank and H. Ginsberg note, â€Å"A scientist he was, yet a fragment of a wall or a potsherd could evoke an emotional as well as an intellectual response. He had a love affair with the Land (the â€Å"heartland†), he uncovered not the history but the drama of people.† â€Å"This makes sense seeing Glueck's service as a rabbi and studies of the Old Testament. Glueck excavated several sites in 1950 he excavated the remains of the civilization of the Nabataeans in Transjordan, this was a copper-mining industry that was located at the shore of the Red Sea. This showed how the Negev could support a such a large population due to the use of irrigation techniques using the Red Sea. Therefore what Glueck says about Negev is, â€Å"The length and width of the Negev were interconnected with roads marked by fortresses, villages, way stations and watertight cisterns.† The erecting of fortresses over the Negev served as an excellent source of protection and saw villages flourish, and agriculture grows, and watertight cisterns surrounded the Negev which made possible the emergence of villages and flocks in areas where they would otherwise not be present. Glueck also spent a lot of time working to define a history for the Negev and wrote: â€Å"The Archaeological History of the Negev† based on his findings. Glueck notes that there were a series of civilizations there and that the Negev is positioned between Canaan, Arabia, and Egypt which made it a strategic location. He indicates that the different civilizations experienced no significant changes in the climate and that no climatic changes have occurred within the last ten thousand years at least. Chalcolithic pottery has been located in the Negev which indicates that a civilization existed there during that period. After this civilization disappeared, the land was unused for almost a thousand years until the Middle Bronze I period (between 21st and 19th centuries BC). â€Å"This civilization was agricultural as evidenced by â€Å"beehive† stone houses that are located on slopes of hills located above land useable for farming.† â€Å"Cup holes† carved in limestone were found that indicate they were used for grinding grain and this evidence has been placed in MB I by the stories of Abraham in the Old Testament.Glueck ExcavationsArchaeology discovered by Glueck indicates a range of civilizations such as the Nabateans who left a substantial amount of pottery behind. Nabateans were known for their worship of multiple deities and are traditionally identified as being pagan which makes the discovery of Khierbet Et-Tannur (a temple) significant. Glueck notes that while the entire site had not been excavated at the time of his writing, â€Å"A whole pantheon of hitherto unknown Nabataean deities was found in the temple that had become their grave.† This temple sits on top of a hill with evidence of staircases leading up steep areas and leading Glueck to believe that goddesses were honored at the peak of this hill and those like it. In 1938 Glueck also did an excavation on the northern third, during the excavation of the site he found a location of forty-five rooms. â€Å"The mound's most impressive structure was uncovered in the northwest corner of the excavated area, a building complex consisting of three roughly square units at the northern end and three larger rectangular rooms extending to the south. † The latter are 7.40 m in length and of varying widths (2.00-3.00 m). The building measures 13.20 m in length (north-south) and is 12.30 m wide on the north side and 13.20 m wide on the south side. The exterior walls are 1.20 m wide; interior walls vary between 0.95 and 1.05 m. The walls were preserved to a height of 2.70 m. The building is almost entirely of mudbrick construction. Its bricks measure ca. 0.40 x 0.20 x 0.10 m and were laid in a roughly â€Å"header and stretcher† fashion. They found 2 horizontal rows of wooden beams that could be consider as construction to strengthening the walls. they had semicircular holes which proved this was a result of the fire and it also confirm the construction and used of wooden beams as written in I Kings. This way of construction with support beams is referenced in I Kings 6:36 which reads, â€Å"He (Solomon) built the inner court with three courses of hewn stone and one course of cedar beams.† Wooden beams, halved in the case of Tell el-Kheleifeh, were embedded across the widths of the walls, creating a stronger bond. The semicircular holes were all that remained after the timbers were consumed in a destruction by fire. These features were also discovered elsewhere in the site's architecture, notably in Room 49. Eight installations, interpreted as hearths or ovens, were found in this casemate unit. Slag was also found at this site which Glueck believes indicates that Tell el-Kheleifeh was used to remelt globules of copper ore retrieved through metallurgical processes in the Wadi Arabah smelting sites to shape them into easily salable ingots or pour the molten metal into molds. â€Å"Ezion-Geber was also a marketplace from Arabia to Palestine. Support for this fact came when pottery was found that had horn handles and mat bases which is associated with the Calebites, Kenites, Rechabites, Yerahmeelites, dated to Iron Age I-II. † Furthermore, the building was identified as a stone house granary and had the means of smelting and fire damage present further supporting the results of the fire. Glueck notes, â€Å"The strong winds which constantly blow from the north in the Arabah furnished the draft necessary for the proper functioning of the furnaces.† A fortified outer wall protected the building, and while Ezion-Geber I was probably destroyed by Shishak, it was rebuilt with a gateway reminiscent of Jehosophat of Judah (871-849 BC). Glueck also led important excavations in Ezion-Geber where it is believed that Solomon's naval base was located. Excavations began in March 1998, and it took three months to uncover one-third of the site. Pottery was discovered at this site along with other findings but its important to note is that the pottery varied. A piece of Edomite pottery was discovered carrying the name â€Å"QoS† which could reference a kind of a god. This indicates that this area had been occupied over a long period of time. An article published in The Biblical Archaeologist in 1965 entitled â€Å"Ezion-Geber† finds Glueck arguing that Tell el- Kheleifeh is Ezion-Geber. In this article he indicates that Tell el-Kheleifeh is represented by a low small mound that â€Å"is located approximately in the center of the north shore of the Gulf of Aqabah, midway between Jordanian Aqabah at its east end and Israeli Eilat at its west end.† Today, it sits five hundred yards from the shore and is estimated to have been at least three hundred yards away many millennia ago during its first occupation in 10th century BC. The location appear to be consistent with the Bibles description in I Kings 9:26 of â€Å"beside Eloth, on the shore of the Red Sea, in the land of Edom.† Glueck further state that, â€Å"The conviction that there has been comparatively little change in the northern shoreline derives partly from our discovery of a copper smelting site on a low shoreline foothill at Mrashrash, now incorporated into Eilat, immediately overlooking the northwest end of the Gulf of Aqabah.† And that the explorations in Eastern Palestine began to appear in 1933, opening new views on the movement of peoples in the Transjordan area in antiquity. Landmarks in his archaeological odyssey were King Solomon's port city Ezion-Geber and his copper mines; the unexpectedly numerous settlements in the Negev; Khirbet Tannur and the civilization of the Nabataeans; the systematic excavation of Tell Gezer. Glueck excavated area at the end of the 1940 season was ca. 80 m north-south, by 72 m east-west. The corner of a nearby garden wall was chosen for the site benchmark, established at 3.99 m over the shore of the Gulf of Aqaba. The highest point of the tell was southeast of its center (Square N:17) at +2.84 m, corresponding to the absolute height above sea level of +6.83 m. The deepest excavated level, reportedly to virgin soil, was in Room 113 ( 1.53 m) below benchmark level. The difference in height between the deepest wall foundation of the western casemate perimeter and the top of the preserved walls was 4.37 m. Although, Tell el-Kheleifeh is not considered a conspicuous site today. Its appearance is very familiar to that of the many surrounding hillocks. A surface survey in August 1980 revealed that, the area of extant architecture is little more than 12 square meters and a few mudbrick walls have been preserved to a height of 1.5 m. â€Å"The fragmentary remains could not be located on the plans prepared by Glueck's architect J. Pinkerfeld. It is likely that the existing walls represent an architectural assortment from the various periods of occupation. † They appear to be located south-southeast of the site's largest structure. The excavator's northern, eastern, and western dumps provided the reference points for location. Although there are no visible remains of the most distinctive architectural elements, a wall in the northern section of preserved architecture, with two horizontal rows of apertures, were interpreted initially as flues. Glueck's excavation area is where the mound has been disturbed at several points by modern military installations, most notably an observation tower toward the southern end of Its foundations appear to have cut undisturbed levels to a depth of 1.5 m. Several trenches have also been cut into the northern and western sections of the site, and these disturbances produced an abundance of finds, including a stamped Rhodian jar handle and a bronze trefoil arrowhead. The material remains gleaned from this survey provide a valuable complement to the 1938-40 assemblage.DiscoveriesBiblical scholars have debated for years whether or not the Edomites ever had a true kingdom, or was a mining industry. In the 1930s, Nelson Glueck made a claim to have found King Solomon's mines, citing, among other things, evidence of mining trails, as well as slag mounds. However, Glueck's claim was largely dismissed after British excavations in the 1970s and 80s seemed to show that extensive mining didn't come to the area until hundreds of years after Solomon's rule. A consensus emerged that the Bible was heavily edited in the 5th century BCE, long after the events, while British excavations of the Ed omite highlands in the 1970s-80s suggested the Iron Age had not even come to Edom until the 7th century BCE. Levy, Director of the Levantine Archaeology Lab at UCSD and associate director of the new Center of Interdisciplinary Science for Art, Architecture, and Archaeology (CISA3), inferred that data from the first large-scale stratified and systematic excavation of a site in the southern Levant ,gave evidence that complex societies were indeed active in 10th and 9th centuries BCE. Which brings us back to the debate about the historicity of the Hebrew Bible narratives related to this period. Glueck discoveries in Faynan/Edom got laughed at, but this recent discovery has vindicated him. Biblical Impact Glueck believed that the Hebrew Bible contains historical memory, but one that cannot be proven. He felt that the spirit of the Israelites was still alive in modern Israel, instilling that belief in both his students and his colleagues. Today, our research paradigms may differ from those of Glueck's day, but his enthusiasm and scholarly integrity remain with us always. The range of Glueck's excavations speaks volume and will echo through the sands of time. He have certainly paved the way for Biblical archaeology to memmic and gave believers more resources to study outside of the Bible. Archaeology cannot be used to prove a Biblical account, however, it definitely can be used to assert the existence of a certain nation at the same time in history. Through Glueck work and the excavations performed by him, believers now have the abilty to research further and take a deep dive into a rich history.ConclusionGlueck work not only laid a strong foundation but it also paved the way in a since to how archaeology is an understatement, providing believers with a broader knowledge and understanding. Through human beings like Nelson Glueck, archaeology has emerged and will continue to grow in a positive way. The works of Glueck continue to ring true and set a precedent for research that every area on the face of the earth, be it outwardly ever so waste and empty, has a story behind it which the inquisitive sooner or later will attempt to obtain. Wel l put statement by Glueck himself in the relationship of the Bible to archaeology. He writes:â€Å"As a matter of fact, however, it may be stated categorically that no archaeological discovery has ever controverted a biblical reference. Scores of archaeological findings have been made which confirm to clear outline or in exact detail historical statements in the Bible.And by the same token, proper eval- uations of the biblical descriptions has often led to amazing discoveries. They form tesserae in the vast mosaic of the Bible's almost incredible correct historical memory.†Glueck put his conviction into practice when he sought to locate King Solomons's long-lost port city of Ezion-Geber. The memory of its location had been in Glueck words â€Å"snuffed out.† like the flame of a gutted candle.† Glueck began by consulting 1 Kings of the Bible that documented this site. The biblical statement said it was located beside Eloth, on the shore of the Red Sea in the land of Edom (1 Kings 9:26;10:22). The Bible served him as a guidebook in his explorations, and his explorations shed light on the Bible. An example we can all learn from. Not that he believed archaeology could or even should lend support to the supreme spiritual values and ethical norms which are native to the Bible. These have their own manifest value. Glueck patience and persistence in his work makes his discoveries and works worth remembering. His dedication and the contribution he has made to the field of archaeology is a valued resource for believer and future archaeologist. The Bible is the inspired and accurate Word of God and God often confirm His Word through mankind. Therefore, we should compare the Scriptural records against the archeological discoveries uncovered at these sites where many of these thrilling events of the Bible actually occurred. The results of these detailed investigations are available for all to examine.BibliographyThe Nelson Glueck School of Archaeology, â€Å"Our founder: Nelson Glueck (1900-1971)†, The Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology (2010), (accessed October 8, 2018).Albright, William F. â€Å"Nelson Glueck in Memoriam.† Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 202 (1971): 2-1. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1356266. (ac cessed October 8, 2018).Glueck, Nelson. 1961. â€Å"The archaeological history of the Negev.† Hebrew Union College Annual 32, 11-18. ATLASerials, Religion Collection, EBSCOhost (accessed October 8, 2018)Ezion-Geber Nelson Glueck Excavations at Tell el-Kheleifeh 1965 AD, http://www.bible.ca/archeology/bible-archeology-exodus-kadesh-barnea-ezion-geber- nelson-gluecks-tell-el-kheleifeh-1965ad.htm (accessed October 8, 2018).Solomon's Fortress at Elat, Aqaba: Tell El-kheleifeh and Jezirit, http://www.bible.ca/archeology/bible-archeology-exodus-route-ezion-geber-elat-aq (accessed October 8, 2018).Pratico, Gary D. â€Å"Nelson Glueck's 1938-1940 Excavations at Tell El-Kheleifeh: A Reappraisal.† Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 259 (1985): 1-32. doi:10.2307/1356795. (accessed October 8, 2018).Nelson Glueck's 1938-1940 Excavations At Tell El-kheleifeh .., http://www.bible.ca/archeology/bible-archeology-exodus-kadesh-barnea-ezion-geber- Nelson-gluecks-1 938-1940-excavations-tell-el-kheleifeh-reappraisal-gary-pratico (accessed October 8, 2018).Uncovering The Secrets Of Kahn, Da Vinci And Solomon's .., http://www.voiceofsandiego.org/topics/science-environment/uncovering-the-secrets (accessed October 8, 2018).King Solomon's (copper) Mines? – University Of California .., http://ucsdnews.ucsd.edu/archive/newsrel/soc/10-22KingSolomon.asp (accessed October 8, 2018).Nelson Glueck, Rivers in the Desert. Farrar, Straus and Cudahy, New York, Grove Press, 1960, p. 31Price, J. Randall. The Stones Cry Out: What Archaeology Reveals About the Truth of the Bible. Eugene, Oreg.: Harvest House, 1997.

Horror in the Maing

Another sub-genre of supernatural horror took off in the sass also, with Carrie 1976), a Stephen King based film, and The Omen (1976), which was part psychological horror, part supernatural; and was strongest in the sass with films such as Poltergeist (1982) and Child's Play (1988). Since sass's Dawn of the Dead horror has been almost always full of gory blood and guts, notable examples being My Bloody Valentine (1981) and Videophone (1983).Today the whole â€Å"gore fest† Is what most horror films are, such as the Saw series (2004-2010), the Final Destination series (2000-). Countless remakes of older, classic horrors are also being churned out, such remakes including The Phantom of the Opera (2004) and The Omen (2006). The horror franchise has truly become a joke, with only a couple of really good horror films having been churned out in the last decade, and constant remarking, gore fests, and sequels being churned out.You can tell it's a Joke thanks to Matthew Horn and James Cordon's Lesbian Vampire Killers (2009), which was clearly taking the muck, and did it successfully, and the Scary Movies (2000-2006) to a less successful degree. HORROR CAN MEAN DIFFERENT THINGS When people think of horror in a film, they might think of blood, gore and violence. Horror can also be used to describe a film containing supernatural themes, or frightening or disturbing content.Older horror films would be based around people's actual fears, the things happening In the movies would be things that could actually happen to a normal excellent, a good example would be Psycho (ODL Hitchcock 1960) It shows a women wanting to escape from her regular life, and running away to meet a partner, stopping in a motel on the way, which is obviously where the troubles begins. Recent horror films have many sub-genres to them and I feel the even though hey do have the same conventions from a typical horror, the pure horror genre is rapidly disappearing.For example, most horrors nowadays h ave a mixed genre; torture films (saw, dir Wan, 2004) thrillers (The departed, dir Scores, 2006) and horror parodies (scary movie, dir Yawns, 2000) The audience attracted to horror films now expect more gore and more fictional, Jumpy storyline, two popular examples being the Mist (dir Dartboard, 2007) and Jeepers Creepers (dir Salsa 2001). Both films included fictional monsters, which we know do not exist in the real world, forever both films are placed under the horror genre because the modern audience find things like this scarier, Fear of the unknown.Audience expectations Why do people choose to watch horror films? Horror films are able to entertain and excite audience on a level other film genres can't. The â€Å"Thrill factor† makes them appealing to audiences and is what makes them so different and unique to other genres. Audiences come to expect certain codes and conventions in any given genre. Horror films are designed to elicit strong emotional reactions from viewers , including fear and dread; Researchers have identified various datives for viewing horror films, including the need for excitement, the desire to feel intense emotions, and distraction from everyday concerns.Although dramatic films can fulfill some of these needs, movies depicting violence and horror have features that other forms of drama do not, including the violation of social norms and the portrayal of events seldom seen in real life. Audiences willingly offer themselves up to sadistic storytellers to be scared witless, and they are happy to pay for the privilege. Theories abound as to why this is so; do we derive basic thrills from reigning the rush of adrenalin which fear brings People rarely view horror films alone.Violent entertainment appeals primarily to males, and it appeals to them mostly in groups. For many young people and adults, horror films are a topic of conversation, a source of shared experience, and a meaner of self-presentation. Not everyone will like the blo od and gore, but many may continue to watch because of other goals, such as demonstrating their ability to tolerate it, or the desire to master the threatening images. As film technology advances and the things that audiences look for in horror films changes

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Characteristics of strategic decision - Essay Example Purchasing an automobile involves a reallocation of resources and the investment is irreversible. The decision could be controversial and may have consequences if the purchase is not made. When purchasing a vehicle, the strategic decision had to be made whether to purchase an older model or a newer model. An older model vehicle could be purchased sooner because it would require a lower down payment and the monthly payments would be lower. A newer model automobile would require a bigger initial investment and the monthly payments would be higher. The long term consequences of purchasing an older model vehicle could result in constant repair bills. A newer automobile may not need the repairs. In either case, the strategic decision would involve and irreversible decision. The vehicle purchase would require a reallocation of funds from a bank account for the initial down payment. There is opportunity costs involved when making a strategic decision to purchase the vehicle. The decision in volves using the available to capital to purchase an older model sooner or continue to save for a larger down payment for a newer model vehicle. In either scenario resources will need to be reallocated. Purchasing the vehicle caused disagreement because the funds that were reallocated could have been used for educational expenses.

Critically evaluate theories of nationalism and its relationship with Essay

Critically evaluate theories of nationalism and its relationship with racism - Essay Example . . Where the sentiment of nationality exists in any force, there is prima facie case for uniting all the members of the nationality under the same government, and a government to themselves apart.† Nationalism cannot be termed as either good or bad, just like the phenomena of socialism, capitalism, or imperialism. Nonetheless, in a good nationality, citizens strive to ensure that their nation is maintained. On the other hand, in bad nationalism, a nation only considers its superiority, and acts against other nationalities in order to remain superior (Smith 2010). Examples of past leaders who perpetuated bad nationality include Slobodan Milosevic and Adolf Hitler. Therefore, nationality is a factor that can cause unification or lead to disintegration. Today, there are various theories of nationalism, which attempt to explain the phenomenon of nationality in different contexts. According to Conversi (1995), these theories can be divided into different categories, namely the ethn o-symbolic, transactional, and homeostatic. However, this categorization was made basing on those theories, which put an emphasis on the boundary mechanisms of nations. Here, Conversi dismisses the traditional categorizations of instrumentalism and primordialism, since these might not apply to modern nationalism (Conversi 1995). Primordialist and sociobiological theories of nationalism are some of the universal theories applied to nationalism. In the primordialist perspective, it is believed that nationalism confers some form of group identity to the members of a nation. A nation is compared to a society, and therefore, just like the society, a nation is characterized by irrational attachments of people, which are based on race, blood, language, among others. Today, most countries, especially those in the third world, have embraced their group identities, which are evident in their communities and ethnic groups. Geertz was a contributor to the theory of primordialism. According to G eertz, the factor of identity in the primordialist approach is natural. These identities are coercive, therefore, cannot be understood basing on people’s social interactions. Finally, he asserted that these identities base on affection and might make the involved people sentimental (Conversi 1995). Another contributor to the primordialist approach was Harold Isaacs. According to Harold, people are normally born into a specific group of people or society at a particular time in history. Therefore, upon being born, each person acquires an identity, similar to that of the group in which they are born. Harold also identified various elements of the identity, which an individual gains. First, he identified the physical factors of skin color, hair type, body size, and type of face, among others. Secondly, he identified the name that is given to an individual. Mostly, people are given family names, and other names common in their group. In addition, a person’s first language identifies them with a specific group of people. Harold also identified the elements of religion, culture, nationality, or ethnic affiliation, the geography of a person’s area of birth, and the history of the group a person is born into, as factors, which grant a person a form of identity (Harris 2009). On the other hand, the sociobiological approach bases on human behavior, in its explanation of nationalism. This bases on three factors, namely, kin selection, reciprocity, and coercion to investigate human

Ethics Assessment Essay Example for Free

Ethics Assessment Essay It is a fact that any business organization must have its principles of code of conduct. These principles must be generally accepted as they act as a mirror to the company’s or organization’s policy of ethics and responsibility, its employees, and the entire marketing team in maintaining consumer as well as community relationships. The organization’s policy has to be based on high-level ethical principles that are fair to all its stake holders. The aim of these principles is to provide a general guidance to the organization without which no meaningful business can take place (Dubois Fattore, 2009). The mission statement, just like the code of ethics or code of conduct, is very essential as part of the organization’s business plan. It is very vital in giving the organization a clear direction concerning how the organization’s plans should be implemented as well as its future plans. The employee handbook Is another equally as important document and it is often used to evaluate the worker’s organization’s overall performance in terms of profitability and its relation with its customers and the general community. The management of any company or organization is supposed to take routine evaluation based on the key areas of the company’s or organizations set-up. These are the Mission Statement, the Ethics Code or Code of Ethics, the Supervisor’s manual as well as the employee handbook. These are the basic things that a company needs so as to be able to survive in the highly competitive world of business where excellent service delivery is the secret to success. The mission statement of any company or organization should be clear to all concerned; the employees, the supervisors and the managers in that order. The mission statement originates from the management and it is here that the managers map out the company’s guide and modes of operation (Stone, 2008). The overall manager or director of the organization should then discuss it thoroughly with fellow managers of the various departments to make sure that it meets the right description of the company before it is released to the employees and subsequently the general public who make up the target market. In order for a mission statement to be deemed successful, it must reach the intended audience as fast as possible and in a clear manner. The services or goods that the company or organization offers are sometimes not well spelt out. This leads to a misunderstanding, miscommunication or misinterpretation . This in turn leads to loss of business because the customers do not know much about the business or exactly what it is that they offer. An example is that of the hospitality industry. Some companies or organization do not care to include in their mission statement full details of what they offer. In such a case a customer may enter a business premise not knowing anything that the organization offers. If prospective customers do not know the full details of the company’s or organizations mission, then disappointment is the result and this The result in most cases is disappointment and loss of prospective customers. Such an oversight should be avoided by setting out clearly on paper what it is that the organization is dealing in instead of leaving it upon customers to guess. A mission statement is the heart of the company’s operations and therefore the managers should make sure that the set code of ethics or conduct is adhered to for the implementation of the company’s or organization’s mission to be successful. Two different companies dealing in the same goods and services were evaluated in terms of how their structures for the communication of their mission statement with relation to their business ethics and standards. In some strange way it was identified that the organization with a wide range of mission statement content performed worse than the organization with a wider range of code of ethics content (Shafritz Hyde, 2007). The above fact is characteristic of the mission and vision statement of the giant Coca Cola company which they describe as enduring, a declaration of their purpose as a corporation. This mission statement acts as the yardstick against which they weigh their decisions and actions. The company acknowledges that the world is fast changing and as such they have to look at the future. They have to understand the forces and trends likely to shape their business in the foreseeable future and the only solution is to move with speed in preparing for any challenges that may come up. The mission statement takes one only a few seconds to go through but the clarity of the message is outstanding. The three point statement reads; ‘To Refresh the World in body, mind, and spirit. , To Inspire Moments of Optimism through our brands and our actions. , To Create Value and Make a Difference everywhere we engage’ (Fry, 1989). The company’s mission is communicated to the public in a clear and simple way and this is the reason for the continued confidence consumers have always had confidence in their brands over the years. Theirs is a perfect example of an inspiring, well-crafted mission statement from a very successful corporation in the world. The company communicates its mission statement through an aggressive campaign aimed at sensitizing the consumers about their aims and goals. The inspiration for everything they do I attributed to their enduring mission. Both the workers and the management find the resolve to go on with the challenges of the corporate world by drawing from the inspiration in the mission statement. Coca Cola has as a result managed to outsmart other well positioned companies like Pepsi Cola and Schweppes Cola which had for sometime rivaled the corporation. The company is socially responsible. It has, through its mission statement managed to create stable communities by manufacturing superb brands that has provided an alternative to other less health-sensitive drinks. The factors behind this are the code of ethics under which the company operates. The customer is the most important person to the company and in essence they strive to keep him satisfied. It is the mission statement, source of their inspiration, which keeps everyone in the company focused with a view to achieving this goal (Kettl James, 2009). Coca cola’s employee manual and the supervisor’s manual provide for all the needs of the employees and the management, ranging from health benefits to reasonable pay allowances. The company has a strict program of ethics and compliance to ensure that its code of ethics is adhered to. This code of conduct requires employees be honest and have integrity in everything they do for the company and has so far been successful in guiding its business conduct (Stone, 2008). This is communicated through reading the manual and all the directors are supposed t understand and exercise them within the company and the outside community at large. The company has an ethics and compliance committee whose job is the evaluation of the compliance with relation to the company’s productivity and its relations with the outside community. This committee determines code violation and recommends the action to be taken against the violator. The code of ethics is routinely revised to improve its effectives. The company needs to improve the code of ethics and update it so as to meet the challenging and changing trends in the business fraternity. Some regulations need to be adjusted so that the employees can interact with the outside community more freely, but this should be done with some regulations so that the people who work in the production department do not leak the company’s production formula to other rival companies (Fry, 1989). Company needs to urgently review mission statement. The statement is too sketchy and many other companies have come up with more catching and better worded mission statements and this has made them sneak their way into the company’s consumer base therefore reducing Coca Cola’s share of the market. Many people all over the world who used to rely on Coca Cola for refreshment have in the recent past turned to other means like tea, water and coffee and therefore the company should redraft its mission statement to reflect the current needs of the consumers. These changes should be communicated in a very aggressive advertisement exercise that will reach all the concerned people (Shafritz Hyde, 2009). This will surely make a change in the consumers’ hearts and renew their confidence in the company’s products. If I were the general manager of the Coca Cola Company, would hire a team of experts to review the company’s ethics, evaluate it and come up with suggestions on how make the existing one better. The team would have to the consumers armed with questionnaires and ask the relevant questions to determine how best the company can improve its services to suit the likes of the consumers. REFERENCES Dubois, H. F. W. Fattore, G. (2009). Definitions and typologies in public administration. Routledge. Fry, R ( 1989). Mastering Public Administration; from Max Weber to Dwight Waldo. Chatham, New Jersey: Chatham House Publishers, Inc. Kettl, D James (2009). The Politics of the Administrative Process. Washington Shafritz, J Hyde, A (2007). Classics of Public Administration. Routledge. Stone, D (2008) Global Public Policy, Transnational Policy Communities and their Networks, Journal of Policy Sciences.

The Non Traditional Student

The Non Traditional Student This chapter reviews relevant studies and literature on the experiences of nontraditional students as they make their way towards the completion of their undergraduate degree. An overview of the characteristics of nontraditional students compared to traditional students is made. Furthermore, the barriers towards completion and the support systems needed are examined for nontraditional female students. Finally, theoretical and empirical literature on barriers experienced and the support systems helpful in overcoming barriers towards completion are presented. The Non-Traditional Student in the 21st Century While the higher education system is designed to reflect the needs and experiences of traditional students (Choy, 2002), the influx of non-traditional students has spurred adjustments within higher education (Bowl, 2011). College recruitments and operations still revolve around the traditional student as evidenced by Web pages, campus newspapers, admissions information, and even administrative hours (Hagedorn, 2005). Studies have even purported to the traditional path toward an undergraduate degree as exception, rather than the rule (Horn Carroll, 1996, p. 14). Nonetheless, despite the fact that mature students aged 25 years old and above are now becoming a common sight in college and university campuses, their concerns are still not properly addressed by higher education institutions (Kilgore Rice, 2003). Studies focusing on the experiences and needs of adult learners and nontraditional students have been conducted since the early 1980s (Cross, 1981; Bean Metzner, 1985). Despite the empirical attention the subject has gained, operational definitions used in the studies have varied considerably, hence, the lack of a consistent definition of the nontraditional student (Bowl, 2001). In the U.S. context, the Department of Education (2002) has defined the nontraditional student as having the following characteristics: 1) delayed enrollment, 2) part-time enrollment, 3) financial independence, 4) full-time employment while enrolled, 5) dependents, 6) single parent, and 7) high school graduation status. Further to this, Horn and Carroll (1996) placed the nontraditional definition along a continuum and suggested that those possessing one of the above-mentioned attributes are considered minimally nontraditional; those having two to three attributes are moderately nontraditional; and those havi ng four or more attributes are considered highly nontraditional. For this particular study, the group of interest is the highly nontraditional group particularly female, aged over 30 and below 61, with dependents, delayed enrollment in college, and employed full-time while pursuing a college degree. Both quantitative and qualitative studies on nontraditional students have more or less painted a common picture of some of their experiences. For in The picture presented by quantitative research is complemented by the insights provided by recent qualitative studies in which a variety of factors which seem to explored. Many writers refer to the extra commitments for which adult students have responsibility; for example, the logistics of running a family and managing family care arrangements, problems with access to library facilities and feelings of isolation often feel tensions between course and family commitments (Ashcroft and Peacock 1993). In addition, mature female students may experience particular problems when family members do not accept the personal growth that takes place as a result of and competing demands, the high level of commitment of mature students is often cited as a contributory factor to the good performance of these students (Powell, 1992; Bullough and Knowles, 1990). Additionally, some older students come to higher education with a powerful personal history of anxiety about a low school performance (Gardner and Pickering, 1991); mature students often feel they have not entered university by the normal way, but have come in through the back door, and consequently feel the need to prove themselves by doing as well as possible (Ashcroft and Peacock, 1993). Once adults have made the decision to enter higher education, they are faced with innumerable threats to their success. While traditional undergraduates are generally able to direct most of their energy toward their studies, older students, parents (especially single parents), and students who work full time have family and work responsibilities competing with school for their time, energy, and financial resources (Choy, 2002). Unlike their more traditional counterparts, nontraditional students often encounter situational, dispositional, and institutional barriers to persistence with little or no support services available to them from their school (Kilgore Rice, 2003). However, when preparation and life-skills are taken into account, traditional students seem to be less prepared for higher education. Many students perceptions of higher education are skewed and based on stereotypical assumptions. These perceptions are typically based on their experiences in secondary education. Many believe that college will be moderately difficult academically, and extremely exciting socially (Laing 2005). Traditional students also perceive the teachers and learning environment at a higher education institution to be similar to their high school. This often results in many students (due in part to their previous educational experiences) will have entered higher education without having taken responsibility for their own learning (Laing 2005:170). A study performed by Bowl (2001) points to the need for institutional change if non-traditional students are to thrive within a system that purports to be directed toward widening participation (p. 141). Bowl (2001) found that non-traditional students are frustrated with the lack of change and improvements that their respective higher education institutions are will to make. Entering into higher education, for non-traditional students can result in a feeling of powerlessness, as well as a struggle for personal, academic, financial and emotional survival (Bowl, 2001, p. 142). The definition of a nontraditional student varies. This study utilized Horns (1996) classification strata, which defined a nontraditional student as an individual who, at a minimum, possesses one of the following characteristics: (a) has delayed enrollment following high school graduation, (b) is a part-time student for at least a part of the academic year, (c) works 35 hours or more per week while enrolled, (d) is considered financially independent under financial aid qualification guidelines, and (e) is a de facto single parent. Horn (1996) delineated nontraditional status as minimally nontraditional (possesses only one characteristic), moderately nontraditional (possesses two or three characteristics), and highly nontraditional (possesses four or more). A traditional student was defined as one who, upon completing high school, immediately enrolled full-time in college, relied upon his or her parents for financial support, and did not usually work during the school year. Barriers Experienced by Non-Traditional Students Susan Weil (1986, 1989) examined the impact of informal learning on non-traditional students expectations and experiences of higher education entry. She described the disjunction between the home and early schooling experiences of research participants and how this disjunction may also be felt by those moving into higher education. According to her, entering higher education can be a shock, accompanied by a sense of personal powerlessness. Evidence from other research with non-traditional students, indicates that higher education is experienced in different ways than by standard, 18 year-old entrants (Macdonald and Stratta, 1998; Pascall and Cox, 1993). It is seen initially, at any rate, as a struggle for personal, academic, financial and emotional survival. Situational Barriers Family, job, and finances all play a part in determining situational barriers. Household income, the number of dependents in the household, and the financial aid received by the students are all variables that determine the persistence rate of adult students (Carney-Crompton Tan, 2002). Although other variables can be negotiated, income levels cannot. The basic needs of the family, like food and rent or mortgage, take a priority over educational expenditures. Time and energy spent trylng to make ends meet, for example, can drain the most dedicated student. Additionally, parents feel guilt about being unavailable when their children need them with mothers of children younger than thirteen feeling the most role conflict (Terrell, 1990). The age of the children may well determine the persistence of women; those with older children may persist to graduation, whereas women with younger child may interrupt or stop their education (Carney-Crompton Tan, 2002). Both a blessing and a curse, employment may have a positive psychological effect on adults, but at the cost of most of their spare time. In addition, nontraditional students my have to make career compromises for the sake of both their families and their academic work (Terrell, 1990), leading to health and financial consequences. Women are often laden with a disproportionate burden of household tasks and caregiver responsibilities (Carney-Crompton Tan, 2002) when attending college. Managing multiple roles may be a source of stress for nontraditional female students. Parents may feel guilty about being unavailable when their children need them, with mothers of children under thirteen reporting the most conflict (Terrell, 1990). Women with older children may persist to graduation, whereas those with younger children may interrupt their education to fulfill family responsibilities (Carney-Crompton Tan, 2002; Home, 1998). Jacobs and King (2002) name several reasons why nontraditional females over age 25 are at-risk of leaving college before degree completion. The biggest risk for older students is part-time attendance. Nontraditional female students without children and attending college full-time have about the same chance of completing college as those in their early twenties. Jacobs and King believe that older women, enrolled part time, who delayed entry into college, and who have become mothers are much less likely to complete their degrees (p. 222). Dispositional Barriers Dispositional barriers are intrapersonal and, consequently, much harder to define. Full-time students report role overload, and student, family, and job demands all contribute to role contagion (Home, 1998). Many full-time students are unable to full anticipate the effects of their combined role demands. In contrast to jobs with fixed hours, student and family demands never seem to end. Increases in roles, demands, and time conflicts are associated with high stress, anxiety, and depression for adult female students (Carney-Crompton Tan, 2002). Because adult students may never find a cohort of similar students with whom they can connect socially or emotionally, support from family and friends is essential when adults are making the decision to stay in school or to drop out. Carney-Crompton and Tan (2002) report that traditional-aged students have more supportive individuals available in their lives than do adult students. Nontraditional students have little or no time to make connections on a college campus. One caring person who answers questions and offers advice may be viewed as a life preserver in a sea of stress and confusion; however, it may be difficult for older adults to find a suitable mentor. Learners construct their experience in the context of particular social settings, cultural values, and economic and political circumstances. As well as being the foundation for learning, experience also distorts, constrains and limits. One example of the limiting power of experience was manifested through the LAST students negative attitude to aspects of the course in terms of content and process. The former was said to be too abstract and the latter too formal and didactic. The issue here, therefore, was one of disposition towards the course. ( Bamber Tett, 2000) Institutional Barriers When asked about the lack of student support services available to nontraditional students at UW-Stout, a representative from the Admissions Office described a fundamental institutional barrier: Schools are not structured to accommodate adult students. (Personal communication) Institutional barriers are systematic barriers that exclude adults or make it difficult for them to successfully navigate through their higher education (Kilgore Rice, 2003). For example, office and class hours that do not meet the needs of students who work and/or care for family members. Adult students may show up for evening and weekend classes and find darkened building whose only lighting is the classroom for the course. The business, financial aid, academic advising, and other student support offices have been closed since five oclock. This example illustrates a lack of not only understanding about the needs of adult learners but also awareness of the students themselves. Even the way assignments are giv en in classes might be considered an institutional barrier and unusually stressful for nontraditional students; for example, group work. Using small groups in student cooperative learning enterprises has become a major trend in American higher education (Cheng Warren, 2000). Despite this increase in frequency, a pilot-study conducted at University of Wisconsin-Stout revealed a litany of complaints by students about group projects (Droege, 2006). In fact, the term grouphate has been coined to indicate the negative attitude that many students have about group work (King Behnke, 2004). This attitude stems from the feeling that group work implies a loss of individual control resulting, in part, from the need to spend time tutoring less competent group members. In most cases, the only way to combat this lack of control is to assume full responsibility for completing the assignment on your own. Ultimately, whether you choose to take control of the group or the leadership role is thrust upon you, there is an added degree of stress that is absent from the other members of the group (Droege). On the plus side, research also confirms a number of benefits to group work. Among others, those benefits that have been identified in the literature include the following: students learn teamwork skills, improve their critical thinking skills, gain more insight about a particular topic, and further develop their social skills. Studies show that employers want college graduates to have developed teamwork skills, and advocates of collaborative learning suggest that this educational strategy affords students a first-hand experience to gain these skills (Payne, Monk-Turner, Smith, Sumter, 2000). Furthermore, it is believed that group projects can effectively serve as a bridge between the academic community and the business world (Page Donelan, 2003). Ideally, working with their peers as part of a group, students will learn decision making skills and how to communicate more effectively with one another. These findings have important practical implications. As suggested by Zepke and Leach (2005), the crucial importance of building relationships also requires the institutional culture to adapt. It is important that the teaching staff help the non-traditional students understand the value of proactive behavior in their university life, through specific tutorial initiatives. Multi-role students who have little time for university activities may sometimes find it difficult to identify the best behaviors to achieve academic success. If setting aside time for oneself has proven to be one of the most frequently cited difficulties among the interviewees, helping these students to recognize the value of investing in social relationships in the community could be an important objective for the university. Research exploring the reasons for student withdrawal tends to conclude that there is rarely a single reason why students leave. In most cases, the picture is complex, and students leave as a result of a combination of inter-related factors. The most comprehensive national survey of students withdrawing from university was conducted by Yorke in the mid-1990s (n = 2151) (Yorke et al 1997). It identified the five most significant reasons for student non-completion: incompatibility between the student and institution, lack of preparation for the higher education experience, lack of commitment to the course, financial hardship and poor academic progress. Yorke and Longdens more recent survey (2008) identified the following seven factors as contributing to early withdrawal: poor quality learning experience; not coping with academic demand; wrong choice of field of study; unhappy with location and environment; dissatisfied with institutional resourcing; problems with finance and employment ; and problems with social integration. Davies and Elias (2002) obtained similar findings (with a sample of over 1 500 students). In their survey, the main factors for leaving were: a mistaken choice of course (24%), financial problems directly related to participating in higher education (18%), and personal problems (14%). More recently, the National Audit Office (NAO) (2007) identified seven types of reasons why students withdraw: personal reasons, lack of integration, dissatisfaction with course/institution, lack of preparedness, wrong choice of course, financial reasons and in order to pursue other opportunities. In summary, the reasons for early withdrawal are. Levels of Support Connecting Classroom Student support includes academic support, skills development, pastoral support, financial information, advice and support. Support may be delivered by dedicated, professional staff (e.g. student services), by academic staff (e.g. personal tutor), by peers (e.g. via mentoring schemes) or via the students union. There are different models of providing both academic and pastoral support: separate, semi-integrated and integrated curriculum models (Warren 2002, Earwaker 1993). Integrated approaches are favoured, as research shows that many students who would benefit from academic and other support services are reluctant to put themselves forward (Dodgson and Bolam, 2002). Personal tutoring is central to establishing a relationship between students and the institution, and providing a first point of contact (Dodgson and Bolam 2002, Yorke and Thomas 2003, Thomas and Hixenbaugh 2006). Teacher Support Work on personal tutoring has drawn on institutional research and evaluation of practice (Thomas and Hixenbaugh 2006). These studies are remarkably consistent in finding that:  · tutoring enhances many students learning experience and improves retention, progression and success  · traditional models of tutoring are no longer appropriate or fit for purpose  · new models of tutoring should be student-centred, integrated into the curriculum, connected to professional services and proactively engage students, especially as they make the transition into HE  · staff need to be involved in the development of new tutoring systems, and provided with guidance, training and support to enable them to fulfil their new roles, in a wider range of contexts and modes of delivery. Other research on academic study support also identifies the value of integrated or semi-integrated approaches (see below). Curriculum development is at the heart of what institutions can do to improve student retention and success. For many students, their academic interactions are the only way in which they interact with the institution, so that learning, teaching, assessment and course content become central to students experience and their decision to stay or leave early. In particular, research evidence points to the importance of: i) Active learning and teaching strategies ii) Formative assessment iii) Relevant courses iv) Integrated personal tutoring and study support v) Flexible learning i) Active learning and teaching strategies Many efforts to improve student retention and success via learning, teaching and assessment approaches focus on promoting greater student engagement in the classroom. This is primarily being undertaken by moving from largely teacher-centred approaches towards student-centred learning practices. There is a consensus that interactive as opposed to didactic teaching improves academic success and promotes the inclusion of learners who might feel like outsiders (Bamber and Tett, 2001; Haggis and Pouget, 2002; Thomas, 2002; Parker et al, 2005). Student-centred learning conceives of students as playing a more active role in their learning processes, and drawing on their existing knowledge, previous experiences and personal interests to enhance engagement, course commitment and retention on the programme. De Corte (2000) (in the context of Belgian schooling) identified the following features of a powerful learning environment. It should:  · include group discussions of both the content and the process of learning and studying  · provide authentic tasks and realistic problems that have personal meaning and future use  · initiate and support active and constructive learning processes (conceptual understanding) and  · enhance students awareness of their own cognitive processes and their ability to control their motives and feelings (cognitive and volitional self-regulation). Active learning is often associated with experiential, problem-based and project-based learning, and other forms of collaborative learning, and less reliance on the large lecture format. Boud and Feletti (1998, p2) identify the key features of a problem-based learning approach as:  · using stimulus material to help students discuss an important problem, question or issue  · presenting the problem as a simulation of professional practice or a real-life situation  · appropriately guiding students critical thinking and providing limited resources to help them learn from defining and attempting to resolve a given problem  · having students work co-operatively as a group, exploring information in and out of class, with access to a tutor who knows the problem well and can facilitate the groups learning process  · getting students to identify their own learning needs and appropriate use of available resources  · reapplying this knowledge to the original problem and evaluating their learning processes. Vincent Tinto has promoted the idea of learning communities as a way of facilitating student engagement both academically and socially. For example, by registering students for the same course or having all new students study the same topic, the entering students form their own self-supporting associations to give each other academic and social support (Tinto, 2000, p28-9). In Tintos work, students found that learning communities had academic and social benefits that impacted positively on student achievement and persistence (Tinto 1998, Tinto 2000). Formative feedback is integrated into the learning experience, and so does not detract from discipline-focused teaching, and it also reaches all students, not just those who have the knowledge and confidence to seek support. Furthermore feedback on formative assessment provides a vehicle for interaction between students and staff, thus helping to develop student familiarity and confidence to approach staff for additional clarification and guidance if necessary. Feedback information can also be used by staff to realign their teaching in response to learners needs (see Russell 2008). Life-World Environment Family Nontraditional students need opportunities to interact with faculty, staff and peers regularly. One of the participants in this study felt that faculty and staff should make themselves more available to students who may have questions or need extra help with assignments. The participant recalled a time when she could not locate any faculty or staff members to answer her question. The experience was incredibly frustrating as the student walked from office to office in search of answers. Departmental faculty and staff should participate in the monthly student forums to answer questions that students may have. Monthly student forums also provide an opportunity for peer interaction among students. Family has been identified as the primary source of support for nontraditional female students. To emulate this type of support, teacher education programs can attempt to create a family atmosphere within the program. A family atmosphere has to be created in every class to build a sense of community among students. The thought of completing two years of coursework individually or as a cohort may be overwhelming for some students. Students have to complete courses one at a time and may need the support of others to do so. Communities are the contexts in which people connect with each other. When nontraditional students feel connected to a place, they tend to invest in their learning (Larrotta, 2009). Social Engagement Harvey and Drew (2006) found that, although social integration is thought to be crucial to student retention and success, it is given comparatively little attention within institutions for example the forming of friendships and the impact of the locality and its social (non-university) facilities are not considered. In the US context, Tinto has established learning communities that study together and these have promoted social, as well as academic, integration. Thomas et al. (2002) found that student services can play a role in promoting social interaction by helping students to locate each other (e.g. mature students, international students etc), by providing social spaces, by offering more flexible and affordable Accommodation options and by compensating for the informal support usually provided by networks of friends. Yorke and Longden (2008) also note the importance of accommodation and living arrangements. Theoretical Framework on Non-Traditional Students Retention This study incorporates two conceptual models (Cross, 1981; Donaldson Graham, 1999) in order to develop a theoretical framework that will examine how nontraditional female students complete their journey towards their college degree. More specifically, this study is concerned with identifying the barriers experienced by these students and in understanding how differing levels of support was helpful in overcoming such barriers. Cross (1981) categorized barriers to participation in adult learning into three areas: institutional, situational, and dispositional. Cross categorization of barriers is one of three works used to form a theoretical framework for the present study. 1. Situationalthose that arise from ones situation or environment at a given point; 2. Institutionalthose practices and procedures that exclude or discourage adults from participating in organized learning activities; and 3. Dispositionalthose related to the attitudes and self-perceptions about one-self as a learner Within the international literature on student retention in higher education, a paradigmatic theoretical framework (Braxton Hirschy, 2004) is Tintos Interactionalist Theory. This theory, in its various revisions (1975, 1988, 1993), identifies the main predictive factor as the level of integration reached by the student in the social and institutional context of academia. In relation to the synthesis proposed by Braxton, Milem, and Sullivan (2000), much empirical evidence currently particularly supports the hypothesis that the degree of the students social integration in the campus community influences the level of commitment during the academic journey and thus the likelihood of successfully completing that journey. However, this model was developed mostly in relation to traditional students and to residential academic contexts, and doubts have been expressed about the validity of generalizing its constructs to explain attrition among non-traditional students (Bean Metzner, 1985; Cabrera, Nora Castaneda, 1993; Donaldson, Graham, Kasworm, Dirkx, 1999; Sandler, 2000; Taniguchi Kaufman, 2005). Donaldson and Grahams (1999) model of college outcomes for adults proposed a framework to examine and assess the key elements affecting the learning of undergraduate nontraditional students. The model takes into consideration the adults preexisting conditions and motives, cognition, classroom engagement, influences of reallife experience, and the outcomes that they observe and experience as a result of college experiences (Donaldson, Graham, Kasworm, Dirkx, 1999). The model draws on the work of Kasworm (1995) who investigated adults experiences and outcomes from undergraduate education. The model examines the relationships among six major elements related to adults undergraduate collegiate experiences: (a) Prior Experience Personal Biographies, (b) Psychosocial and Value Orientations, (c) Adults Cognition, (d) the Connecting Classroom, (e) the Life-World Environment, and (f) the Outcomes. The Connecting Classroom is the central avenue for social engagement and for negotiating meaning for learning. Adults use the classroom to define the separation between academic and life-world knowledge structures (schemata). They use academic knowledge structures to illuminate and elaborate existing life-world structures and transform both real-world and academic knowledge structures into new, integrative structures and meaning. For nontraditional students, the classroom defines the college experience (Kasworm, 1997). The classroom serves as the pivotal hinge with adults utilizing their various roles in life such as student, worker, citizen, and family member to make meaning of their college experience (Kasworm, 1997; Donaldson Graham, 1999). The Life-World Environment encompasses current work, family, and community situations and settings or the different roles and contexts in which adults work and live. Adults have out-of-class social settings that support their entrance or return to higher education; individuals in these settings include family members, coworkers, supervisors, and community members. These levels of support can detract from or enhance the elements of the psychosocial and value orientations component when adults engage in collegiate experiences (Donaldson Graham, 1999). Summary